Published in: Proceedings Fachbereich BID der FH
Hannover 17.-19. Oktober S.398-408 (1989)
European Supplying of Information - The Optimizing
of the Structures and their Consequences on Education
Walther Umstätter
Abstract
Introduction
A look Back to take a glimpse of the future
1. Statement: The function of
libraries is more and more identical with the function of documentation
centres.
2. Statement: Gigabytes and terabytes of free storage
space makes an electronic library with computer terminals like convenient
entrances in the next years much more realistic than classical librarians
can imagine.
3. Statement: A
great part of older undigitalized information can be imported into machine-readable
form by optical character readers (OCR).
4. Statement: One
of the most important tasks for information resource managers will be
to handle electronical stored full-texts.
5. Statement: Electronic
document delivery for whole Europe needs broad band communication like
satellites and for short distances optical fibres. On the legal side
it must be justified.
6. Statement: User's
demand has to be investigated more precisely. So we have to find out
which information in which form has to be offered at which place and
at which time economically.
7. Statement:
What we need today is a knowledge base at each information point that
can tell us the different types of sources, their costs, their availability
and their use.
8. Statement: International
library standards has to be newly created or, like the MARC format,
to be modernised.
References
Abstract:
There are two typical alternative illusions in the field
of librarianship:
1. Lancaster and some others are believing in
a paperless world in the near future.
2. Old fashioned librarians seem to believe
that catalogue cards can not disappear.
In reality we observe that from day to day more
and more information is only available on an international host, a CD-ROM,
an inhouse system in a local area network, or on a private micro-computer.
Notwithstanding, the production and usage of paper is growing steadily.
So we have to realise that information resource management in the next
decades has to handle all these different types of information storage
systems in an optimised proportion. That means to know the advantages
and disadvantages of printed materials, of microforms, of magnetic and
optical storage systems, as well as the problems of information transmission.
Also, questions about the usefulness of electronic mail,
fax machines or character recognition readers are important topics of
modern teaching. The economic aspect of information with all the time
consuming searches, the often ineffective visits in different libraries
and the attempts to be better informed than the competitors on the market
or in the scientific community, makes the old fashioned libraries obsolet
and requires a modern knowledge based system. The important question
in the near future is not, how students can learn to sort catalogue
cards in the one correct way, but how we get a deeper and wider insight
into the possibilities of finding the available European information
sources. It will be not so necessary to think about the second or third
keyword for a book, but to have experience in free- and full-text searching.
Distributed computer intelligence, handling of graphics, and the estimation
of information demands will dominate the conceivable evolution.
In my opinion it is time to think more about the reduction
of noise and redundancy to get real information, than about the development
of printed card oriented cataloguing rules from the last century. The
European market, the scientists and the common people need directly
available low-priced information (fiction or non-fiction) not only from
books or journals, but also from knowledge bases or expert systems.
Information resource management has to consider that creativity, serendipity
and associative thinking should be supported by sufficient active and
passive offers at the right place. Centralised systems for document
supply like BLDSC, TIB, or Mitterrand's inaugurated TGB "Tres grande
Bibliotheqe" seems to be adequate for conventional sources. The aim
of European programs like Adonis, Apollo or Artemis make other developments
information logistics more feasible. One of the most unknown and influential
elements in this divergent perspectives will be the control of copyrights.
Introduction:
What we have to do here, in my opinion, is only to look
into the near future. It's clear, nobody knows anything precisely about
the next decade, in which Europe shall consolidate and modernise his
structures. But what we can do, is to look into the history to find
out the most important trends, which will determine the developments
in libraries, documentation centres and in the archives. Undoubtedly,
information technology has brought a dramatic change into our world.
This is a crucial trend, but what we would like to know is the impact
of all these gadgets concerning our profession.
A look back to take a glimpse of the future:
The strongest trend in the last centuries was the doubling
time of printed items, which was estimated with roughly 16 years by
Fremont Rider(1) a half century ago. This explosion
of publication, often called "information explosion" is nearly unchanged
till now, and there is no indication that it can be reduced significantly
without information technology. So the only thing that has retarded
the growth of regular book and journal production in the last years
is the transition to other forms, like self-printed reports and author's
editions just as new storage media like microfilm, microfiche, and magnetic
or optical disks for example.
The often cited Delphy study from 1980 published by Lancaster
et al. with the title : "The Impact of a Paperless Society on the Research
Library of the Future." made the assumption that in the year 1995 50%
of the technical reports will only be available in electronic form(2).
Another point, mentioned by Lancaster, is the projection of AT&T,
that there will be a billion terminals in North America by the year
2000(3). Already a fraction of this value would be
enough to change the scientific community.
Notwithstanding I agree with Donald King who has written:
"Lancaster's view of the future has many desirable features, although
I am not convinced that a completely paperless system is as inevitable
- or desirable - as he asserts."(4) To take Lancaster's
own words: "there is no real question that completely paperless systems
will emerge in science and in other fields."(5). In
consequence of the exponential growth, there is no chance to hope that
a library will be able, over a long period, to grow with the same speed
as the world production of papers and books in science, fiction, and
non-fiction. There is not enough money to buy all the sources, not enough
space to store all the volumes, and not enough time to make them available.
We know that consumer price index from 1967 to 1987 increased by the
factor 3.4 and the average cost per journal (in the Brandon list) by
a factor of 6(6).The increase in average price per
medical book rose by 439% from 1965 to 1989(7).
Even the Library of Congress has a more and more reduced
percentage of total world wide available information. So we have to
see, that the growing number of repositories at the end of the nineteenth
century was followed by the creation of documentation. Card catalogues
should help to discover remote relevant books and to make them available
by ordering, and central catalogues became installed to establish interlibrary
loan (ILL). For example, figures from OCLC might lead one to think that
there had been an even greater increase in interlending in the USA,
but this must be measured against the increasing number of libraries
joining the network(8).
At the NLM (National Library of Medicine) 63% of all
requests are received via DOCLINE, but from 1984 to 1987 NLM's fill
rate for serials requests has declined from 78% to 67% (9).
A third synergistic factor which promotes this development
is electronic document delivery. The financial break-even point at this
time appears to be approximately 10,000 fax-transactions per year and
per node for Dollar 100,000 at the MIT(10). In the
Federal Republic of Germany we observed in the last year a doubled number
of fax-machines from 150,000 to more then 300,000 today. That is fewer
than ten percent of the world wide use.
Within the last 5 years Canadian libraries have increasingly
abandoned telex in favour of electronic mail when sending ILL requests(11). Such mailbox systems will play also an important role at
the electronic campus. As an example, the Carnegie Mellon University
displays in an electronic bulletin board called LIBRARY the current
table of contents for more than 33 scholarly journals(12).
In a European academic network it will be possible to communicate with
such mailboxes. The presupposition for such expensive interlending activities
is a better knowledge about the source that has to be ordered. At the
beginning of the 20th century the Dewey Decimal system, the Universal
Decimal Classification, and the Library of Congress system were founded
for a better content analysis. The libraries have changed their function,
from an open shelf system to a hidden storage entirely. Lower and lower
was the proportion of open accessible volumes and the amount of books
that had to be ordered by using a catalogue was growing steadily.
1. Statement: The function of libraries is more and more identical with
the function of documentation centres.
Documentation in the first half of our century was characterised
by a very low level and can not be compared with that after the leap
in 1963, what I would like to call the step into modern documentation.
At this time the third computer generation was exclaimed by IBM, and
the Weinberg Report(13) recommended to promote data
bases like Chemical Abstracts, ERIC, Library of Congress, MEDLINE, NTIS
or Science Citation Index by the government. It should be remembered,
that in this report librarians were pictured as being somewhat anachronistic,
as not keeping up with modern developments in automation or in new methods
of bibliographic control. One indignant librarian at that time ceremonially
burned a copy(14).
All these well known online available data bases have
grown out of computer-based publishing, in which the material was keyboarded
for computer typesetting. The rough estimation of a terabyte, that means
ten with the power of thirteen bits information in the Library of Congress,
at that time led to the realistic view, that it would be better to index
all this materials and not to try to store it in full-text. Today we
know, that the information content was underestimated more than thousand
times, because Weinberg and his colleagues did not consider the information
content of pictures and graphics. With more and more interest in the
graphic capabilities of modern computer technology we learn to understand
to eliminate the redundancy e.g. by image analysis and pattern recognition.
Mass storage systems like hard disks with hundreds of megabytes, WORM
and erasable disks give us the possibility to offer in special cases
full texts or abstracts.
2. Statement: Gigabytes and terabytes of free storage space makes an
electronic library with computer terminals like convenient entrances
in the next years much more realistic than classical librarians can
imagine.
Personal costs shows a doubling time of nearly seven
years in industrialised countries since a long time, in contrast to
the half-life of thirty months for prices that have to be paid in information
technology. That means that in 1995 the relation will be ten times better
for the technological handling of information than today and in the
year 2002 over one hundred times. A very important point in this connection
is the fact, that scanning machines will be very helpful to put thousands
of pages completely into retrieval systems.
A short download from "The Electronic Encyclopedia",
the CD-ROM of 1988 can be cited here. In this article Jessica L. Harris(15)
pointed out:
"In the future, a researcher who is engaged in
experimental work and needs the advice of colleagues in other locations
may go to a computer terminal and send a message concerning the work
in progress. The colleagues, at their own terminals, would receive the
message, and reply at their convenience. This dialogue could continue
for some time, until the researcher's work was completed, whereupon
a report would be prepared at the same terminal and transmitted by computer
to the editor of a journal, to be considered for publication. After
the editor receives it, he or she would transmit it to reviewers who
would judge its publication worthiness and send their comments back
to the editor, who would synthesise them for the author. After revising
the paper, the author would retransmit it; the editor would then arrange
for it to go through composition and publication in the journal. At
the same time the paper would go to the abstracting and indexing services
that covered it in their publications. A scenario such as this one is
technically possible at present; all these steps can be carried out
at electronic speeds on the basis of only one keyboarding. Omission
of the final step of paper publication is also possible, with substitution
of direct transmission, as in SDI, to workers who have registered an
interest in the topic of the paper."
The electronic library at the Bell laboratories is using
some of these features in the last years, and thousands of scientists
in the world exchange their disks with each other and also with their
publishers. Networks like EARN, JANET or DFN are also heavily used in
this electronic world. It's a danger that librarians are not involved
good enough in this landscape today.
Let us suppose an output of 10 gigabyte of important
readable characters per day in Europe, so it's not a matter of storage
technology to collect all this materials. It is at first a matter of
organisation and at second a matter of data arrangement. Both of these
problems have to be seen in regard of copyright and of intellectual
property. Most of the important new texts are created in a digitalized
form. There would be no problem to make them available in international
networks or on CD-ROM if there is a real demand and if the publishers
can be sure to earn enough money.
3. Statement: A great part of older undigitalized information can be
imported into machine-readable form by optical character readers (OCR).
There are different offers today of texts like the Bible,
Goethe, Shakespeare, the philosophical works of Kant or encyclopedias
and many others. From day to day the number is growing. The advantage
of such electronic books is so significant, that everybody who has only
little experience in this field will be convinced that there is a great
demand. In connection with Hypertext, Hypercard or Hypermedia the benefits
for instance on CD-ROM, CD-I or DVI are immense. Full-text retrieval
requires not only software enhancements like hedges, highlighting, a
search within n sentences etc.(16), it is also necessary
to partition the books, periodicals, or reports into intellectual units
that can be handled without greater problems. The hypertext philosophy
will be helpful in this text preparation and automatic or half-automatic
indexing will be inevitable.
4. Statement: One of the most important tasks for information resource
managers will be to handle electronical stored full-texts.
All these different possibilities to store, to offer
and to reorganise information make it necessary to think about an European
information resource management.
Let us look at a rather simple problem:
A normal person who would like to monitor all information
in her special topic of interest, out of the journal literature, is
getting perhaps twenty most important papers from her own three subscriptions
per year. Following the experience she knows that the regular screening
of some thirty journals in her special library brings additional forty
papers of her interest. After that she tries to visit five other libraries
to browse sporadic fifty named periodicals to gain in total eighty publications.
With this sources she extrapolate Bradford's law of scattering and estimates
the total amount with roughly two hundred papers. So she knows that
sixty percent of her demand has to be retrieved by citation analysis
or by other search methods after the screening of eighty journals. As
we know, a physicist is reading 190 Articles per year as an average(17).
In our example, more than thousand pages have to be ordered
by interlibrary loan from local libraries or a document supply centre
(DSC). Such a DSC is the well known British Library DSC from which Scandinavian
libraries receive 50% of their international loans. If system interface
were improved, the existing European DOCLINE link between Chalmers University
Library in Gothenburg, TIB (Hanover) and BLDSC in Boston Spa could be
extended in scope(18). The role of the "Bibliotheque
de France", that shall be built till 1995 for far more than a half billion
ECU, can be expected.
To facilitate co-operation, more than 100 libraries in
North America use CONSPECTUS, an online subject inventory of library
collections(19). In Europe CONSPECTUS is tested since
1984 by the British library(20). In this context it
should be remembered that in 1980 ADONIS was largely stimulated by the
desire to solve the copyright problem. At that time 10,000 commercial
publishers in Europe were active. This whole industry exceeded revenues
of 20 billion ECU (most probable 30 billion today). Parallel to ADONIS,
the initial concept of ARTEMIS was to test the existing network technology
for full-text transmission. As a Result, the following APOLLO project
investigated the feasibility of a satellite-based system for document
delivery(21). There are some different experiments
in electronic publishing and document delivery in Europe(22).
A taxonomy of copymarks is already proposed by Michael Spring from University
of Pittsburgh(23). The development in electronic production,
exchange and perception of papers will be determined by the European
copyright law and by the question wether it can be proved.
5. Statement: Electronic document delivery for whole Europe needs broad
band communication like satellites and for short distances optical fibres.
On the legal side it must be justified.
Graphics, pictures and tables has to be stored and transmitted
in the same way as characters. The massive increase in the use of collections
is leading to a physical deterioration of many volumes, so that some
libraries are already having to restrict the use of some endangered
titles(24). Also the Library of Congress stored some of the mostly used
materials on optical discs for testing this new technology and for protection
of the printed material(25). But we know that high
resolution document images need over 1000 times more electronic storage
space than byte coded characters. Reduction of redundancy and image
compression has to be understood on principle, because it will be possible
to have a retrieval not only for words and phrases but also for colours,
patterns or outlines. The indexing of graphics and pictures on the basis
of pattern recognition is possible. Such a colour image database for
an ethnology museum was build up for 30 billion Yen in Japan in the
last ten years(26). We can also find additional experiences
in the field of botanical and zoological cladistics.
Notwithstanding there are some doubts that optical disks
are the instant solution to the problem of mass document storage that
is frequently assumed(27). Rather it will be necessary
to distribute editions with a high demand on many European strategic
points in form of printed volumes, microfiche, or optical discs. These
system of document supply has to be optimised. Following the statement
of Donald W. King(17), that the current journal system
is inefficient, because ten copies of articles are distributed for each
use, we should be aware, that ADONIS will show, that the number of photocopies
per article and library is not so immense as some publishers want to
make believe. With other words, it is nonsense to buy and to store a
volume with more than twenty papers, if only one is used by patrons.
6. Statement: User's demand has to be investigated
more precisely. So we have to find out which information in which form
has to be offered at which place and at which time economically.
A Scientist can save as an average 8% of his time and
money if he neglects reading and the browsing of journals, books and
bibliographies. It may be a result of bad experiences with libraries
and interlending that some of them are doing so, but such scientists
are in the great danger to be misinformed and to produce rubbish. In
Britain Ensor estimated, that industry wastes nearly 10 million ECU
a year on old information(28). This value seems to
be much too low, because Gränzer(29) estimated that in the Federal Republic of Germany nearly 8
billion ECU will be lost by wrong information logistics. That means,
that the information was not at the right time on the right place.
In many cases we find the cause for this lack of information
not only in the too low level of acquisition in our libraries, moreover
it's a lack of knowledge about the existing sources. So we know from
the statistics that German university libraries have an acquisition
comparable with that of the USA, but we can find only one half. Another
problem is the distribution of information in an industrial plant, a
rural area, or a university. The Integrated Academic Information Management
System (IAIMS) started in 1984 and partially supported by NLM grant
in 6 universities, is a basic approach to this problem. For example
the IAIMS workstation at John Hopkins is the prototype of the so called
Knowledge Workstation which helps to move easily between clinically
oriented and literature databases to retrieve facts, refresh memory,
compose a book chapter, develop and maintain a knowledge base, and communicate
with colleagues(30). We should be aware, that in such
an environment also new operating systems like those of transputers,
with distributed intelligence, OCCAM is only one of them, will take
place. This is also of relevance for efficient text scanning(31).
In the same direction of fifth-generation parallel-processing
computation evolves the Electronic Information Delivery Online System
(EIDOS) from OCLC. EIDOS is using photocomposition tapes received from
publishers as sources of machine-readable books. It was found out that
48% of book use is of 15% of a book or less(32).
7. Statement: What we need today is a knowledge base at each information
point that can tell us the different types of sources, their costs,
their availability and their use.
A short statement of the question of standardisation
should be done here. The MARC format as well as the German MAB2 format
was created a quarter of a century before. It is with all his varieties
very common and there are made some attempts in retrospective conversions
of card catalogues(33) or scanned full-texts(34). A proposal for an extension of MARC to a modernised METAMARC
exists already(35). But in my opinion Europe should
try to get a real modern format, that is able to take over old MARC
or MAB2 formats and which is modern enough to face the next decades
with full-text, expert systems, and electronic publishing. The different
adaptations to ISO/OSI in many European countries, the USA or Canada
seems at the moment also very confusing.
8. Statement: International library standards has to be newly created
or, like the MARC format, to be modernised.
After all I think there is no doubt, that electronic
handling of information is much more important than library education
till now makes clear. Understanding of artificial intelligence, system
analysis, operations research, programming, and database construction
is necessary in Harold Borkos opinion. He emphasized that these specialized
education should be made in arrangement with such faculties and shouldn't
be a part of the library school curriculum(36). Some
believe also that librarians should become teachers in the use of information
technology(37). That's possible but in my opinion we should concentrate at
first to our primary problems. We should find out the real users demand,
working out a plan for information logistics and use information technology
only to fulfil our duty. That some basic knowledge in information technology
is necessary is obviously. There are some European examples for an Information
resource management curriculum in Glasgow, Maastricht and Sheffield,
but this is not enough. In the "New Directions in Library and Information
Science Education" Jose-Marie Griffiths and Donald W. King emphasized:
"It is clear that we must prepare for an information-dominated future.
Essential components of this future are librarians and information professionals
who will be severely challanged by the Information Age."(38).
References:
(1) Rider, F.: The Scholar and
the Future of the Research Library.
Hadham Press, New York (1944)
(2) Lancaster, F.W.; Drasgow, L.
and Marks, E.: The Impact of a Paperless Society on the Research Library
of the Future.
Final Report to the National Science Foundation. Urbana, Il.
University of Illinois, Graduate School of Library Science (1980)
(3) Lancaster, F.W.: The Future
of the Library in the Age of Telecommunications.
Telecommunications and Libraries: A Primer for Librarians and Information
Managers.
White Plains, NY: Knowledge Industry Publications, Inc. (1981)
(4) King, D.W.: Roadblocks to Future
Ideal Information Transfer Systems.
Telecommunications and Libraries: A Primer for Librarians and Information
Managers.
White Plains, NY: Knowledge Industry Publications, Inc. (1981)
(5) Lancaster, F.W.: Whither Libraries?
or Wither Libraries.
Coll. & Res. Lib. 50 (4) 406-419 (1989)
(6) Kronenfeld, M.R. and Gable,
S.H.: Update on inflation of journal prices: medical journals, U.S.
journals, and Brandon/Hill list journals.
Bull. Med. Libr. Assoc. 77 (1) 61-64 (1989)
(7) Brandon, A.N.; Hill, D.R.;
Levy, G.L. and Levy, J.W.: Selected list of books and journals for the
small medical library.
Bull. Med. Libr. Assoc. 77 (2) (1989)
(8) Cornish, G.P.: Interlending
and document supply. A review of recent literature.
XIV. Interl. and Doc. Supply 16 (3) 103-109 (1988)
(9) Lacroix, E.M.: Impact of DOCLINE
on interlibrary loan service at the National Library of Medicine.
Bull. Med. Libr. Assoc. 77 (1) 42-47 (1989)
(10) Reintjes, J.F.: Application
of Modern Technologies to Interlibrary Resource-Sharing Networks.
JASIS 35 (1) 45-52 (1984)
(11) Lunau, C.D.: Canadian advances
in the application of electronic mail and interlibrary loan automation.
Interl. and Doc. Supply 16 (2) 58-60 (1988)
(12) Tinsley, G.L.: An electronic
bulletin board: LIBRARY.
Spec. Libr. 80 (3) 188-192 (1989)
(13) Weinberg-Kommission:
Science, Government and Information.
Report of The President's Science Advisory Commitee USA. Washington
(1963)
(14) Weinberg, A.M.: Science,
government, and information: 1988 perspective.
Bull. Med. Libr. Assoc. 77 (1) 1-7 (1989)
(15) The Electronic Encyclopedia",
CD-ROM version (1988)
(16) Basch, R.: The seven deadly
sins of full-text searching.
Database 12 (4) 15-23 (1989)
(17) King, D. W.; D. D. McDonald,
N. K. Roderer : Scientific journals in the United States. Their production,
use, and economics.
Hutchinson Roß Publ. Comp. Stroudsburg (1981)
(18) Winkel, A.: The application
of new technology to interlending and document supply in Scandinavia
- a progress report.
Interl. and Doc. Supply 16 (3) 101-102 (1988)
(19) Ferguson, A.W.; Grant, J.
and Rutstein, J.S.: The RLG Conspectus: Its Use and Benefits.
Coll. & Res. Lib. 49 197-206 (1988)
(20) van Heijst, J.: Conspectus
und die nationale und internationale Bibliothekspolitik.
in: Nationalbibliotheken im Jahr 2000, S.81-95 Hrsg.:v. Köckritz,
S. und Nowak, K., Buchhändler- Vereinigung GmbH, Frankfurt am Main
(1988)
(21) Gurnsey, J.: Electronic Document
Delivery - III Electronic Publishing. Trends in the United States and
Europe.
Learned Information, Oxford (1982)
(22) Mastroddi, F.A.: Experiments
in electronic publishing and document delivery: Results of the EEC's
DOCDEL programme.
Interl. and Doc. Supply 16 (4) 121-128 (1988)
(23) Spring, M.: The origin and
use of copymarks in electronic publishing.
J. of Doc. 45 (2) 110-123 (1989)
(24) Wheelhouse, H.: Resource
sharing - A critical view of the literature.
Interl. and Doc. Supply 16 (4) 136-143 (1988)
(25) Videodisc and optical digital
disk technologies and their applications in libraries. A Report to the
Council on Library Resources, Inc. Wash. by Information Systems Consultants
Inc.
ERIC Reports ED 257 433 (1985)
(26) Hong, J.-K.; Hashihara, H.;
Ioka, M.; Kurokawa, M.; Sato, M. Sugita, S.; Kubo, M. and Yamamoto,
Y.: A Color Image Database for an Ethnology Museum.
Cologne Computer Conference Sept. 7th-10th, 1988 Volume of Abstracts
IBM B.5-1 - B.5-2 (1988)
(27) Moralee, D.: Facing the limitations
of electronic document handling.
The Electronic Library 3 (3) 210-217 (1985)
(28) Blagden, J.: Do we really
need libraries?
Saur, Bingley (1980)
(29) Gränzer, W.: Was uns
bewegt.
IBM Nachrichten 37 S.18 (1987)
(30) Lucier, R.E.; Matheson, N.;
Butter, K.A. and Reynolds, R.E.: The Knowledge Workstation: An Electronic
Environment for Knowledge Management.
Bull. Med. Libr. Assoc. 76 (3) 248-255 (1988)
(31) Cringean, J. K.; Manson,
G.A.; Willet, P. and Wilson, G.A.: Efficiency of text scanning in bibliographic
databases using microprocessor-based, multiprocessor networks.
J. of Inf. Sci. 14 335-345 (1988)
(32) Kilgour, F.G.: An essential
information delivery system.
in: ASIS '87. Proceedings of the 50th Annual Meeting of the American
Society for Information Science. Boston, Mass. Oct. 4-8, 1987 Vol. 24
134-137 (1987)
(33) Harrison, M.: Retrospective
conversion of card catalogues into full MARC format using sophisticated
computer-controlled visual imaging techniques.
Program 19 (3) 213-230 (1985)
(34) Hein, M.: Optical scanning
for retrospective conversion of information.
The Electronic Library 4 (6) 328-331 (1986)
(35) Hinnebusch, M.: METAMARC:
An Extension of the MARC Format.
Inf. Tech. and Lib. 8 (1) 20-33 (1989)
(36) Borko, H.: Artificial intelligence
and expert systems research and their possible impact on information
science education.
Educ. for Inf. 3 103-114 (1985)
(37) Moore, M.: Innovation and
education: unlimited potential for the teaching library.
Bull. Med. Libr. Assoc. 77 (1) 26-32 (1989)
(38) Griffiths, J.-M. and King,
D.W.: New Directions in Library and Information Science Education.
Greenwood Press, Inc. American Society for Information Science (1986)
Last update: 20. May 1997 © by Walther Umstaetter
change: 27 August 2002 Ben Kaden (contextur@aol.com)
